Radio
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Etymology
Originally, radio or radiotelegraphy was called "
wireless telegraphy", which was shortened to "wireless" by the British. The prefix
radio- in the sense of wireless transmission, was first recorded in the word
radioconductor, coined by the French physicist
Édouard Branly in 1897 and based on the verb
to radiate (in Latin "radius" means "spoke of a wheel, beam of light, ray"). "Radio" as a noun is said to have been coined by the advertising expert Waldo Warren (White 1944). This word also appears in a 1907 article by
Lee De Forest, was adopted by the
United States Navy in 1912 and became common by the time of the first commercial broadcasts in the United States in the 1920s. (The noun "broadcasting" itself came from an agricultural term, meaning "scattering seeds widely".) The term was then adopted by other languages in Europe and Asia. British Commonwealth countries continued to mainly use the term "wireless" until the mid-20th century, though the magazine of the
BBC in the UK has been called
Radio Times ever since it was first published in the early 1920s.
In recent years the term "wireless" has gained renewed popularity through the rapid growth of short-range computer networking, e.g.,
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN),
WiFi, and
Bluetooth, as well as mobile telephony, e.g.,
GSM and
UMTS. Today, the term "radio" often refers to the actual transceiver device or chip, whereas "wireless" refers to the system and/or method used for radio communication, hence one talks about
radio transceivers and
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), but about
wireless devices and
wireless sensor networks.
Processes
Radio systems used for
communications will have the following elements. With more than 100 years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialized for different communications purposes.
Each system contains a
transmitter. This consists of a source of electrical energy, producing
alternating current of a desired
frequency of oscillation. The transmitter contains a system to
modulate (change) some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle properties such as amplitude, frequency, phase, or combinations of these properties. The transmitter sends the modulated electrical energy to a tuned
resonant antenna; this structure converts the rapidly-changing alternating current into an
electromagnetic wave that can move through free space (sometimes with a particular
polarization (waves)).
Electromagnetic waves
travel through space either directly, or have their path altered by reflection, refraction or diffraction. The intensity of the waves diminishes due to geometric dispersion (the
inverse-square law); some energy may also be absorbed by the intervening medium in some cases.
Noise will generally alter the desired signal; this
electromagnetic interference comes from natural sources, as well as from artificial sources such as other transmitters and accidental radiators. Noise is also produced at every step due to the inherent properties of the devices used. If the magnitude of the noise is large enough, the desired signal will no longer be discernible; this is the fundamental limit to the range of radio communications.
The electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving
antenna; this structure captures some of the energy of the wave and returns it to the form of oscillating electrical currents. At the receiver, these currents are
demodulated, which is conversion to a usable signal form by a
detector sub-system. The receiver is "
tuned" to respond preferentially to the desired signals, and reject undesired signals.
Early radio systems relied entirely on the energy collected by an antenna to produce signals for the operator. Radio became more useful after the invention of
electronic devices such as the
vacuum tube and later the
transistor, which made it possible to amplify weak signals. Today radio systems are used for applications from
walkie-talkie children's toys to the control of
space vehicles, as well as for
broadcasting, and many other applications.
Electromagnetic spectrum
Radio frequencies occupy the range from a few tens of
hertz to three hundred gigahertz, although commercially important uses of radio use only a small part of this spectrum.
[2] Other types of electromagnetic radiation, with frequencies above the RF range, are
microwave,
infrared, visible
light,
ultraviolet,
X-rays and
gamma rays. Since the energy of an individual
photon of radio frequency is too low to remove an
electron from an
atom, radio waves are classified as
non-ionizing radiation.
History
Invention
The meaning and usage of the word "radio" has developed in parallel with developments within the field and can be seen to have three distinct phases: electromagnetic waves and experimentation; wireless communication and technical development; and radio broadcasting and commercialization. Many individuals -- inventors, engineers, developers, businessmen - contributed to produce the modern idea of radio and thus the origins and 'invention' are multiple and controversial. Early radio could not transmit sound or speech and was called the "
wireless telegraph".
Development from a laboratory demonstration to a commercial entity spanned several decades and required the efforts of many practitioners. In 1878,
David E. Hughes noticed that sparks could be heard in a telephone receiver when experimenting with his carbon microphone. He developed this carbon-based detector further and eventually could detect signals over a few hundred yards. He demonstrated his discovery to the Royal Society in 1880, but was told it was merely induction, and therefore abandoned further research.
Tesla demonstrating wireless transmissions during his high frequency and potential lecture of 1891. After continued research, Tesla presented the fundamentals of radio in 1893.
A demonstration of wireless telegraphy took place in the lecture theater of the Oxford University Museum of Natural History on August 14, 1894, carried out by Professor
Oliver Lodge and
Alexander Muirhead. During the demonstration a radio signal was sent from the neighboring Clarendon laboratory building, and received by apparatus in the lecture theater.
In 1895
Alexander Stepanovich Popov built his first radio receiver, which contained a
coherer. Further refined as a
lightning detector, it was presented to the Russian Physical and Chemical Society on May 7, 1895. A depiction of Popov's lightning detector was printed in the Journal of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society the same year. Popov's receiver was created on the improved basis of Lodge's receiver, and originally intended for reproduction of its experiments.
Commercialization
In 1896, Marconi was awarded the British patent 12039,
Improvements in transmitting electrical impulses and signals and in apparatus there-for, for radio. In 1897 he established a radio station on the
Isle of Wight, England. Marconi opened his "wireless" factory in Hall Street,
Chelmsford, England in 1898, employing around 50 people.
The next advancement was the vacuum tube detector, invented by
Westinghouse engineers. On Christmas Eve, 1906,
Reginald Fessenden used a synchronous rotary-spark transmitter for the first radio program broadcast, from Ocean Bluff-Brant Rock, Massachusetts. Ships at sea heard a broadcast that included Fessenden playing
O Holy Night on the violin and reading a passage from the Bible. This was, for all intents and purposes, the first transmission of what is now known as amplitude modulation or AM radio. The first radio news program was broadcast August 31, 1920 by station 8MK in Detroit, Michigan, which survives today as all-news format station
WWJ under ownership of the CBS network. The first college radio station began broadcasting on October 14, 1920, from Union College, Schenectady, New York under the personal call letters of Wendell King, an African-American student at the school.
[7] That month 2ADD, later renamed
WRUC in 1940, aired what is believed to be the first public entertainment broadcast in the United States, a series of Thursday night concerts initially heard within a 100-mile (160 km) radius and later for a 1,000-mile (1,600 km) radius. In November 1920, it aired the first broadcast of a sporting event.
[7][8] At 9 pm on August 27, 1920, Sociedad Radio Argentina aired a live performance of Richard Wagner's Parsifal opera from the Coliseo Theater in downtown
Buenos Aires. Only about twenty homes in the city had receivers to tune in this radio program. Meanwhile, regular entertainment broadcasts commenced in 1922 from the Marconi Research Centre at
Writtle,
England.
One of the first developments in the early 20th century (1900-1959) was that aircraft used commercial AM radio stations for navigation. This continued until the early 1960s when
VOR systems finally became widespread (though AM stations are still marked on U.S. aviation charts). In the early 1930s,
single sideband and
frequency modulation were invented by amateur radio operators. By the end of the decade, they were established commercial modes. Radio was used to transmit pictures visible as
television as early as the 1920s. Commercial television transmissions started in
North America and
Europe in the 1940s. In 1954, the Regency company introduced a pocket
transistor radio, the
TR-1, powered by a "standard 22.5 V Battery".
In 1960, the
Sony company introduced its first transistorized radio. It was small enough to fit in a
vest pocket, and able to be powered by a small battery. It was durable, because it had no vacuum tubes to burn out. Over the next 20 years, transistors replaced tubes almost completely except for very high-power
transmitter uses. By 1963, color television was being regularly broadcast commercially (though not all broadcasts or programs were in color), and the first (radio)
communication satellite,
Telstar, was launched. In the late 1960s, the U.S. long-distance telephone network began to convert to a digital network, employing
digital radios for many of its links. In the 1970s,
LORAN became the premier radio navigation system. Soon, the U.S. Navy experimented with
satellite navigation, culminating in the invention and launch of the
GPS constellation in 1987. In the early 1990s,
amateur radio experimenters began to use personal computers with audio cards to process radio signals. In 1994, the U.S. Army and
DARPA launched an aggressive, successful project to construct a
software-defined radio that can be programmed to be virtually any radio by changing its software program. Digital transmissions began to be applied to broadcasting in the late 1990s.
Uses of radio
Early uses were maritime, for sending telegraphic messages using
Morse code between ships and land. The earliest users included the Japanese Navy scouting the Russian fleet during the
Battle of Tsushima in 1905. One of the most memorable uses of marine telegraphy was during the sinking of the
RMS Titanic in 1912, including communications between operators on the sinking ship and nearby vessels, and communications to shore stations listing the survivors.
Radio was used to pass on orders and communications between armies and navies on both sides in
World War I; Germany used radio communications for diplomatic messages once it discovered that its submarine cables had been tapped by the British. The United States passed on President
Woodrow Wilson's
Fourteen Points to
Germany via radio during the war. Broadcasting began from
San Jose, California in 1909,
[9] and became feasible in the 1920s, with the widespread introduction of radio receivers, particularly in Europe and the United States. Besides broadcasting, point-to-point broadcasting, including telephone messages and relays of radio programs, became widespread in the 1920s and 1930s. Another use of radio in the pre-war years was the development of detection and locating of aircraft and ships by the use of
radar (
RAdio
Detection
And
Ranging).
Today, radio takes many forms, including
wireless networks and
mobile communications of all types, as well as radio
broadcasting. Before the advent of
television, commercial radio broadcasts included not only news and music, but dramas, comedies, variety shows, and many other forms of entertainment. Radio was unique among methods of dramatic presentation in that it used only sound. For more, see
radio programming.
Audio
A Fisher 500 AM/FM
hi-fi receiver from 1959.
AM radio uses
amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the transmitted signal is made proportional to the sound amplitude captured (transduced) by the microphone, while the transmitted frequency remains unchanged. Transmissions are affected by static and interference because lightning and other sources of radio emissions on the same frequency add their amplitudes to the original transmitted amplitude. In the early part of the 20th century, American AM radio stations broadcast with powers as high as 500 kW, and some could be heard worldwide; these stations' transmitters were commandeered for military use by the US Government during World War II. Currently, the maximum broadcast power for a civilian AM radio station in the
United States and Canada is 50 kW, and the majority of stations that emit signals this powerful were grandfathered in (see
List of 50kw AM radio stations in the USA). In 1986
KTNN received the last granted 50,000 watt license. These 50 kW stations are generally called "
clear channel" stations (not to be confused with
Clear Channel Communications), because within
North America each of these stations has exclusive use of its broadcast frequency throughout part or all of the broadcast day.
FM broadcast radio sends music and voice with higher fidelity than AM radio. In
frequency modulation, amplitude variation at the
microphone causes the transmitter frequency to fluctuate. Because the audio signal modulates the frequency and not the amplitude, an FM signal is not subject to static and interference in the same way as AM signals. Due to its need for a wider bandwidth, FM is transmitted in the Very High Frequency (VHF, 30 MHz to 300 MHz) radio spectrum. VHF radio waves act more like light, traveling in straight lines; hence the reception range is generally limited to about 50-100 miles. During unusual upper atmospheric conditions, FM signals are occasionally reflected back towards the Earth by the
ionosphere, resulting in
long distance FM reception. FM receivers are subject to the
capture effect, which causes the radio to only receive the strongest signal when multiple signals appear on the same frequency. FM receivers are relatively immune to lightning and spark interference.
High power is useful in penetrating buildings, diffracting around hills, and refracting in the dense atmosphere near the
horizon for some distance beyond the horizon. Consequently, 100,000 watt FM stations can regularly be heard up to 100 miles (160 km) away, and farther (e.g., 150 miles, 240 km) if there are no competing signals. A few old, "grandfathered" stations do not conform to these power rules.
WBCT-FM (93.7) in
Grand Rapids,
Michigan, USA, runs 320,000 watts ERP, and can increase to 500,000 watts ERP by the terms of its original license. Such a huge power level does not usually help to increase range as much as one might expect, because
VHF frequencies travel in nearly straight lines over the horizon and off into space. Nevertheless, when there were fewer FM stations competing, this station could be heard near Bloomington, Illinois, USA, almost 300 miles (500 km) away.
[citation needed]
FM subcarrier services are secondary signals transmitted in a "piggyback" fashion along with the main program. Special receivers are required to utilize these services. Analog channels may contain alternative programming, such as reading services for the blind, background music or stereo sound signals. In some extremely crowded metropolitan areas, the sub-channel program might be an alternate foreign language radio program for various ethnic groups. Sub-carriers can also transmit digital data, such as station identification, the current song's name, web addresses, or stock quotes. In some countries, FM radios automatically re-tune themselves to the same channel in a different district by using sub-bands.
Aviation voice radios use
VHF AM. AM is used so that multiple stations on the same channel can be received. (Use of FM would result in stronger stations blocking out reception of weaker stations due to FM's
capture effect). Aircraft fly high enough that their transmitters can be received hundreds of miles (or kilometres) away, even though they are using VHF.
Marine voice radios can use
single sideband voice (SSB) in the shortwave High Frequency (HF—3 MHz to 30 MHz) radio spectrum for very long ranges or
narrowband FM in the VHF spectrum for much shorter ranges. Narrowband FM sacrifices fidelity to make more channels available within the radio spectrum, by using a smaller range of radio frequencies, usually with five
kHz of deviation, versus the 75 kHz used by commercial FM broadcasts, and 25 kHz used for TV sound.
Government, police, fire and commercial voice services also use narrowband FM on special frequencies. Early police radios used AM receivers to receive one-way dispatches.
Civil and military HF (high frequency) voice services use
shortwave radio to contact ships at sea, aircraft and isolated settlements. Most use
single sideband voice (SSB), which uses less bandwidth than AM. On an AM radio SSB sounds like ducks quacking, or the adults in a
Charlie Brown cartoon. Viewed as a graph of frequency versus power, an AM signal shows power where the frequencies of the voice add and subtract with the main radio frequency. SSB cuts the bandwidth in half by suppressing the carrier and (usually) lower sideband. This also makes the transmitter about three times more powerful, because it doesn't need to transmit the unused carrier and sideband.
Telephony
Mobile phones transmit to a local
cell site (transmitter/receiver) that ultimately connects to the public switched telephone network (
PSTN) through an optic fiber or microwave radio and other network elements. When the mobile phone nears the edge of the cell site's radio coverage area, the central computer switches the phone to a new cell. Cell phones originally used FM, but now most use various digital modulation schemes. Recent developments in Sweden (such as DROPme) allow for the instant downloading of digital material from a radio broadcast (such as a song) to a mobile phone.
Video
Television sends the picture as AM and the sound as AM or FM, with the sound carrier a fixed frequency (4.5 MHz in the
NTSC system) away from the video carrier. Analog television also uses a
vestigial sideband on the video carrier to reduce the bandwidth required.
Digital television uses
8VSB modulation in North America (under the
ATSC digital television standard), and
COFDM modulation elsewhere in the world (using the
DVB-T standard). A
Reed–Solomon error correction code adds redundant correction codes and allows reliable reception during moderate data loss. Although many current and future codecs can be sent in the
MPEG transport stream container format, as of 2006 most systems use a standard-definition format almost identical to
DVD:
MPEG-2 video in
Anamorphic widescreen and
MPEG layer 2 (
MP2) audio.
High-definition television is possible simply by using a higher-resolution picture, but
H.264/AVC is being considered as a replacement video codec in some regions for its improved compression. With the compression and improved modulation involved, a single "channel" can contain a high-definition program and several standard-definition programs.
Navigation
All
satellite navigation systems use satellites with precision clocks. The satellite transmits its position, and the time of the transmission. The receiver listens to four satellites, and can figure its position as being on a line that is tangent to a spherical shell around each satellite, determined by the time-of-flight of the radio signals from the satellite. A
computer in the receiver does the math.
Radio direction-finding is the oldest form of radio navigation. Before 1960 navigators used movable loop antennas to locate commercial AM stations near cities. In some cases they used marine radiolocation beacons, which share a range of frequencies just above AM radio with amateur radio operators.
LORAN systems also used time-of-flight radio signals, but from radio stations on the ground.
VOR (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range), systems (used by aircraft), have an antenna array that transmits two signals simultaneously. A directional signal rotates like a lighthouse at a fixed rate. When the directional signal is facing north, an omnidirectional signal pulses. By measuring the difference in phase of these two signals, an aircraft can determine its bearing or radial from the station, thus establishing a line of position. An aircraft can get readings from two VORs and locate its position at the intersection of the two radials, known as a "fix." When the VOR station is collocated with DME (
Distance Measuring Equipment), the aircraft can determine its bearing and range from the station, thus providing a fix from only one ground station. Such stations are called VOR/DMEs. The military operates a similar system of navaids, called TACANs, which are often built into VOR stations. Such stations are called VORTACs. Because TACANs include distance measuring equipment, VOR/DME and VORTAC stations are identical in navigation potential to civil aircraft.
Radar
Radar (Radio Detection And Ranging) detects objects at a distance by bouncing radio waves off them. The delay caused by the echo measures the distance. The direction of the beam determines the direction of the reflection. The polarization and frequency of the return can sense the type of surface. Navigational radars scan a wide area two to four times per minute. They use very short waves that reflect from earth and stone. They are common on commercial ships and long-distance commercial aircraft.
General purpose radars generally use navigational radar frequencies, but modulate and polarize the pulse so the receiver can determine the type of surface of the reflector. The best general-purpose radars distinguish the rain of heavy storms, as well as land and vehicles. Some can superimpose sonar data and map data from
GPS position.
Search radars scan a wide area with pulses of short radio waves. They usually scan the area two to four times a minute. Sometimes search radars use the
Doppler effect to separate moving vehicles from clutter. Targeting radars use the same principle as search radar but scan a much smaller area far more often, usually several times a second or more. Weather radars resemble search radars, but use radio waves with circular polarization and a wavelength to reflect from water droplets. Some weather radar use the Doppler effect to measure wind speeds.
Data (digital radio)
2008 Pure One Classic digital radio
Most new radio systems are digital, see also:
Digital TV,
Satellite Radio,
Digital Audio Broadcasting. The oldest form of digital broadcast was spark gap
telegraphy, used by pioneers such as Marconi. By pressing the key, the operator could send messages in
Morse code by energizing a rotating commutating spark gap. The rotating commutator produced a tone in the receiver, where a simple spark gap would produce a hiss, indistinguishable from static. Spark gap transmitters are now illegal, because their transmissions span several hundred megahertz. This is very wasteful of both radio frequencies and power.
The next advance was continuous wave
telegraphy, or CW (
Continuous Wave), in which a pure radio frequency, produced by a
vacuum tube electronic oscillator was switched on and off by a key. A receiver with a local oscillator would "
heterodyne" with the pure radio frequency, creating a whistle-like audio tone. CW uses less than 100 Hz of bandwidth. CW is still used, these days primarily by
amateur radio operators (hams). Strictly, on-off keying of a carrier should be known as "Interrupted Continuous Wave" or ICW or
on-off keying (OOK).
Radio teletypes usually operate on short-wave (HF) and are much loved by the military because they create written information without a skilled operator. They send a bit as one of two tones. Groups of five or seven bits become a character printed by a teletype. From about 1925 to 1975, radio teletype was how most commercial messages were sent to less developed countries. These are still used by the military and weather services.
Aircraft use a 1200 Baud radioteletype service over VHF to send their ID, altitude and position, and get gate and connecting-flight data. Microwave dishes on satellites, telephone exchanges and TV stations usually use
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). QAM sends data by changing both the phase and the amplitude of the radio signal. Engineers like QAM because it packs the most bits into a radio signal when given an exclusive (non-shared) fixed narrowband frequency range. Usually the bits are sent in "frames" that repeat. A special bit pattern is used to locate the beginning of a frame.
Communication systems that limit themselves to a fixed narrowband frequency range are vulnerable to
jamming. A variety of jamming-resistant
spread spectrum techniques were initially developed for military use, most famously for
Global Positioning System satellite transmissions. Commercial use of spread spectrum began in the 1980s.
Bluetooth, most cell phones, and the 802.11b version of
Wi-Fi each use various forms of spread spectrum.
Systems that need reliability, or that share their frequency with other services, may use "coded orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing" or
COFDM. COFDM breaks a digital signal into as many as several hundred slower subchannels. The digital signal is often sent as QAM on the subchannels. Modern COFDM systems use a small computer to make and decode the signal with
digital signal processing, which is more flexible and far less expensive than older systems that implemented separate electronic channels. COFDM resists fading and ghosting because the narrow-channel QAM signals can be sent slowly. An adaptive system, or one that sends error-correction codes can also resist interference, because most interference can affect only a few of the QAM channels. COFDM is used for
Wi-Fi, some
cell phones,
Digital Radio Mondiale,
Eureka 147, and many other local area network, digital TV and radio standards.
Heating
Radio-frequency energy generated for heating of objects is generally not intended to radiate outside of the generating equipment, to prevent interference with other radio signals.
Microwave ovens use intense radio waves to heat food.
Diathermy equipment is used in surgery for sealing of blood vessels. Induction
furnaces are used for melting metal for
casting, and
induction hobs for cooking.
Amateur radio service
Amateur radio, also known as "ham radio", is a hobby in which enthusiasts are licensed to communicate on a number of bands in the
radio frequency spectrum non-commercially and for their own enjoyment. They may also provide emergency and public service assistance. This has been very beneficial in emergencies, saving lives in many instances.
[10] Radio amateurs use a variety of modes, including nostalgic ones like
Morse code and experimental ones like
Low-Frequency Experimental Radio. Several forms of radio were pioneered by radio amateurs and later became commercially important including
FM,
single-sideband (SSB),
AM, digital packet radio and satellite repeaters. Some amateur frequencies may be disrupted by
power-line internet service.
Unlicensed radio services
Unlicensed, government-authorized personal radio services such as
Citizens' band radio in
Australia, the
USA, and
Europe, and
Family Radio Service and
Multi-Use Radio Service in North America exist to provide simple, (usually) short range communication for individuals and small groups, without the overhead of licensing. Similar services exist in other parts of the world. These radio services involve the use of handheld units.
Free radio stations, sometimes called
pirate radio or "clandestine" stations, are unauthorized, unlicensed, illegal broadcasting stations. These are often low power transmitters operated on sporadic schedules by hobbyists, community activists, or political and cultural dissidents. Some pirate stations operating offshore in parts of
Europe and the
United Kingdom more closely resembled legal stations, maintaining regular schedules, using high power, and selling commercial advertising time.
[11][12]
Radio control (R C)
Radio remote controls use radio waves to transmit control data to a remote object as in some early forms of
guided missile, some early TV remotes and a range of model boats,
cars and airplanes. Large industrial remote-controlled equipment such as
cranes and switching
locomotives now usually use digital radio techniques to ensure safety and reliability.
In
Madison Square Garden, at the Electrical Exhibition of 1898, Nikola Tesla successfully demonstrated a radio-controlled boat.
[13] He was awarded U.S. patent No. 613,809 for a "Method of and Apparatus for Controlling Mechanism of Moving Vessels or Vehicles."
[14]
See also
References
- General information
- A História da Rádio em Datas (1819-1997) (in Portuguese) - notes on etymology
- Leigh White, Buck Fuller and the Dymaxion World (refers to Waldo Warren as the inventor of the word radio), in: The Saturday Evening Post, 14 October 1944, cited in: Joachim Krausse and Claude Lichtenstein (eds.), Your Private Sky, Lars Müller Publishers, Baden/Switzerland, 1999, page 132. ISBN 3-907044-88-6
- L. de Forest, article in Electrical World 22 June 1270/1 (1907), early use of word "radio".
- http://web.mit.edu/varun_ag/www/bose.html - It contains a proof that Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose invented the Mercury Coherer which was later used by Guglielmo Marconi and along with other patents.
- Cheney, Margaret (1981). Tesla - Man Out of Time. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0743215367.
- Footnotes
- ^ Dictionary of Electronics By Rudolf F. Graf (1974). Page 467.
- ^ The Electromagnetic Spectrum, University of Tennessee, Dept. of Physics and Astronomy
- ^ Many of Edison's patents were actually made by his employees - Edison patented their work and did not share the credit of the innovation. During the timeframe that the patentable work was undertaken, Nikola Tesla worked for Edison in America (beginning in 1884).
- ^ Edison, his life and inventions By Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas Commerford Martin. Page 830.
- ^ IEEEVM: Nikola Tesla
- ^ K. Corum; J. Corum. "Tesla's Colorado Springs Receivers" (PDF). http://www.teslasociety.com/teslarec.pdf. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
- ^ a b "Radio Broadcasting". W2uc.union.edu. http://w2uc.union.edu/RADIO_web.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
- ^ "Union College Magazine". 2000.union.edu. http://2000.union.edu/N/DS/edition_display.php?e=677&s=2700. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
- ^ "The History Of KQW Radio - KCBS". Bayarearadio.org. http://www.bayarearadio.org/schneider/kqw.shtml. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
- ^ "''Amateur Radio "Saved Lives" in South Asia''". Arrl.org. 2004-12-29. http://www.arrl.org/news/stories/2004/12/29/100/?nc=1. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
- ^ Free radio: electronic civil disobedience by Lawrence C. Soley. Published by Westview Press, 1998. ISBN 0813390648, 9780813390642
- ^ Rebel Radio: The Full Story of British Pirate Radio by John Hind, Stephen Mosco. Published by Pluto Press, 1985. ISBN 0745300553, 9780745300559
- ^ "Tesla - Master of Lightning: Remote Control". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ins/lab_remotec.html. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
- ^ "Tesla - Master of Lightning: Selected Tesla Patents". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/tesla/res/613809.html. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
Further reading
- Aitkin Hugh G. J. The Continuous Wave: Technology and the American Radio, 1900-1932 (Princeton University Press, 1985).
- Briggs Asa. The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom (Oxford University Press, 1961).
- De Forest, Lee. Father of Radio: The Autobiography of Lee de Forest (1950).
- Ewbank Henry and Lawton Sherman P. Broadcasting: Radio and Television (Harper & Brothers, 1952).
- Fisher, Marc Something In The Air: Radio, Rock, and the Revolution That Shaped A Generation (Random House, 2007).
- Leland I. Anderson (ed.), "John Stone Stone, Nikola Tesla's Priority in Radio and Continuous-Wave Radiofrequency Apparatus". The Antique Wireless Review, Vol. 1. 1986. 24 pages, illustrated.
- Maclaurin W. Rupert. Invention and Innovation in the Radio Industry (The Macmillan Company, 1949).
- Ray William B. FCC: The Ups and Downs of Radio-TV Regulation (Iowa State University Press, 1990).
- Scannell, Paddy, and Cardiff, David. A Social History of British Broadcasting, Volume One, 1922-1939 (Basil Blackwell, 1991).
- Schwoch James. The American Radio Industry and Its Latin American Activities, 1900-1939 (University of Illinois Press, 1990).
- Sterling Christopher H. Electronic Media, A Guide to Trends in Broadcasting and Newer Technologies 1920-1983 (Praeger, 1984).
- White Llewellyn. The American Radio (University of Chicago Press, 1947).
- Ulrich L. Rohde, Jerry Whitaker "Communications Receivers, Third Edition ", McGraw Hill, New York, NY, 2001, ISBN 0-07-136121-9.
External links
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